Breeding strategies for improving performance of Kuchi chicken ecotype of Tanzania for production under village conditions 

J Lwelamira, G C Kifaro* and P Gwakisa** 

Institute of Rural Development Planning, P.O. Box 138, Dodoma, Tanzania;

jlwelamira@yahoo.com

*Department of Animal Science and Production, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3004, Morogoro, Tanzania;

**Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania

Abstract 

A study was carried out to evaluate various breeding scenarios geared at improving performance of Kuchi chicken ecotype of Tanzania, a type of native chicken found in drier area of north-west part of the country, for production under extensive (village) management conditions. The purpose of these breeding scenarios was mainly to improve body weight at 16 weeks of age (Bwt16). In some breeding scenarios, primary antibody response against Newcastle disease virus vaccine (Ab) was also considered.

 

Depending on a breeding scenario, results from the present study indicate that it would take approximately 5 to 10 generations of selection, which corresponds to around 3 to 6 years of selection for improving Bwt16 either singly or together with Ab from their current population mean of 974g and 4.8 (HIlog₂) to the desired population mean of 1300g and 6(HIlog₂), respectively (i.e. improvement by 34 and 25%, respectively). Depending on gain per generation, number of years required to attain the desired mean, expected fitness under village conditions and costs of breeding, some breeding scenarios were recommended.

Key words: body weight, desired gain, extensive management, Newcastle disease, selection

Introduction 

Animal protein intake in developing countries including Tanzania has been very low compared to the recommended level (Pedersen 2002; Nielsen et al 2003). The situation is further aggravated by high incidences of poverty in these countries. Due to their short generation intervals, chickens have high potential to offset this problem of low protein intake, and they can as well act as source of income and hence reducing poverty. Local chickens dominate the chicken industry in developing countries. It has been estimated that more than 70% of rural households in developing countries keep local chickens (Aini 1990; MOAC 1997). These local chickens are mostly kept under free range management system (i.e. extensive management) in villages. According to Melewas (1989) and Roetter et al (2007), more than 85% of people in developing countries reside in rural areas. Since majority of people in developing countries live in rural areas (villages), in which most of them are keeping local chickens, it is obvious that putting an emphasis on local chickens would have an immediate positive impact on animal protein intake and income by most of the people in these countries. Low genetic potential for production traits and frequent outbreak of diseases specifically Newcastle disease has been noted in a significant number of studies to be among of the major factors limiting productivity of the local chickens in the Tropics both under intensive and extensive management systems (Katule and Mgheni 1990; Yongolo 1996; Alexander 2001; Msoffe 2003). Crossbreeding programs with specialized meat type or egg type chickens has been shown by several workers to improve their productivity significantly (Ali et al 2000; Pedersen 2002; Theerachai et al 2003; Segura-Correa et al 2004). However, these crossbreeding programs are threatened by the current global move on conservation of indigenous genetic resources which campaigns against genetic dilution of indigenous genetic resources (Msoffe 2003; Kosgey 2004). This call for a need to look for an alternative approach for genetic improvement of local chickens. In this regard, genetic improvement through selection within local chickens could be a good option.  A study conducted by Lwelamira (2007) both under intensive and extensive management (i.e village conditions) in two Tanzania local chicken ecotypes viz. Kuchi and Tanzania Medium (Medium) have shown existence of significant additive genetic variation in various traits in these ecotypes and hence expecting adequate response to selection. Based on their performances, the study further revealed Kuchi ecotype to be good starting material for improving for meat production and Medium ecotype for egg production. Therefore, this study was carried out to evaluate various selection breeding strategies for improving performance of Kuchi ecotype for management under village (extensive) conditions.

 

Materials and methods 

Comparison of various breeding scenarios/ schemes

 

Various breeding scenarios were designed and compared through simulation. These scenarios were compared in terms of gain per generation, number of generations required to achieve the desired performances and correlated responses in some breeding scenarios (i.e. those involved selection under intensive management and selected stock expected to perform under extensive management). The emphasis in this study was on improving body weight at 16 weeks of age (Bwt16). In some breeding scenarios, primary antibody response against Newcastle disease virus vaccine (Ab) (i.e. Indicator for immunocompetence to Newcastle disease) was also considered. Egg production and related traits were not considered in this study because no data were available for these traits in this ecotype under extensive management system. For the scenarios which involved single trait selection based on own performance, response per generation were calculated according to Falconer and Mckay (1996) using equation 1. Correlated responses On-farm (extensive management) following single trait selection On-station (Intensive management) were calculated using equation 2 based on Falconer and Mckay (1996). Furthermore, since relative economic weights for the traits considered were not available, those scenarios where more than one trait were considered simultaneously (i.e Bwt16 and Ab), desired gain selection indices were used. The desired gain indices were constructed according to Yamada et al (1975) as applied in subsequent studies (Gill and Verma 1983; Hazary et al 1998; Nishida et al 2001; Noda et al 2002; Kaushik and Khanna 2003). Therefore, gain per generation and number of generations required to achieve the desired performances in multi-trait selection were computed as per Yamada et al (1975).

 

  (Equation 1)

Where:

R = response to selection per generation
i = intensity of selection,
h² = heritability estimate,
σ_P = phenotypic standard deviation.

 

Heritabilities and phenotypic standard deviations were obtained from the study by Lwelamira (2007) for this chicken ecotype (Table 1).

Table 1.  Genetic and phenotypic parameters for the studied traits in Kuchi ecotype
Management system	Trait	Unit	σp	h2	Extensive Management*
					Ab	Bwt16
Extensive management	Ab	HIlog2	1.208	0.22	.	-2.59
	Bwt16	Gram	125.09	0.37	-12.08	.
Intensive management	Bwt16	Gram	109.42	0.44		rA= 0.75
Source; Lwelamira (2007 Ab = Antibody response; Bwt16 = Body weight at 16 weeks of age; σp= Phenotypic standard deviation;  h2 = Heritability; *Above diagonal is the genetic covariance and below diagonal is the phenotypic covariance; rA= genetic correlation for Bwt16 in two environments (i.e. extensive and intensive management).

     (Equation 2)

Where,

CR₂= Correlated response in environment 2 following selection in environment 1;

r_A= genetic correlation between the same trait measured in two environments (i.e. environment 1 and 2) viz. intensive and extensive management system;

σ_A2 = additive genetic standard deviation for a trait in environment 2;

σ_A1 = additive genetic standard deviation for a trait in environment 1;

R₁= response to selection for a trait in environment 1.

 

Genetic parameters for the above formula were derived from parameters for this ecotype in Table 1.

 

Use of index I in selection usually involves calculation of weighting factors b for traits to be used as selection criteria (equation 3).

 

I = b′ X    (Equation 3)

Where:

I= Selection index;
b =  n x 1 vector of weighting factors;
X = n x 1 vector of source of information, usually phenotypic measurements on candidate for selection or its relatives.

In the present study, information source (X) was individual own performance.

 

Based on the Yamada index, b in the present study was calculated as:

 

b = (G′ R) ^–1Q    (Equation 4)

Where:

G = n x m genetic variance-covariance matrix of the traits used as selection criteria and traits in the breeding objectives;
Q = m x 1 vector of intended genetic changes for m traits assigned by breeder;
R = n x n matrix of Wrights coefficient of relationship.

Genetic variance-covariances were derived from genetic parameters estimated for this ecotype in a study by Lwelamira (2007) (Table 1).

 

Desired genetic changes for various traits (i.e. Q) were calculated as the difference between desired and observed means (Yamada et al 1975; Kaushik and Khanna 2003; Suzuki et al 2005).

 

Intended performances and hence desired genetic changes were chosen in such a way that they are within the capacity of the population as shown by performance of some individuals in an environment under consideration (Lwelamira 2007). Furthermore, the chosen intended performances were close to the performance of the crosses between local and exotic birds (Ali et al 2000; Theerachai et al 2003; Lwelamira and Katule 2004). In addition, the chosen intended performance for body weight also depended on weight at which a chicken can be marketed (Pedersen 2002; Theerachai et al 2003; Acamovic et al 2005). By considering body weight much further, assessed from maximum weights possible under different ages (i.e. capacity of a population), since possibility of attaining market weight (i.e. at least 1kg) earlier than 16 weeks of age through selection under extensive management conditions was non-existent (Lwelamira 2007). Moreover, as heritability estimates for body weights were relatively higher in later ages compared to earlier ages (Lwelamira 2007). Therefore, body weight at 16 weeks of age (Bwt16) was chosen as the target body weight. Furthermore, based on the capacity of a population (Kuchi), body weight at 16 weeks of age was also chosen as it is possible to target much higher weights in a breeding objective (i.e. above 1kg under extensive management conditions, and hence chickens would be fetching good prices) compared to body weights at 8 and 12 weeks of age, and at earlier age than at 20 weeks of age (Lwelamira 2007).

 

 Based on Yamada index, expected genetic gains per generation were calculated using equation 5.

   (Equation 5)

Where:

i_I  = intensity of selection based on the index;

σ_I  = standard deviation of the index calculated as shown in equation 6;

∆G = m x 1 vector of genetic gains per generation in m traits;

G = n x m genetic variance-covariance matrix.

   (Equation 6)

 

Where P is an n x n phenotypic variance-covariance matrix. Again P was derived from parameters in Table 1.

 

The number of generations q required to attain the pre-defined breeding objectives in multi-trait selection was calculated using equation 7 (Yamada et al 1975; Kaushik and Khanna 2003). All matrix equations were solved using Interactive Matrix Language (IML) procedures of SAS (2000).

    (Equation 7)

Population structure and derivation of selection intensities

 

In breeding scenarios which involved selection under extensive (village) conditions it was assumed that 100 farmers (households) are involved in the program, and each household keeps 2 to 3 breeding females. Furthermore, it was assumed that, in total in each generation 40 best males and 240 best females are selected, and each cock saves 2-3 households (i.e. a mating ratio of one male to 4 to 9 females). In the study by Lwelamira (2007) for this ecotype it was found that the average number of progeny per dam obtained under field condition to be around 6. Therefore, 240 hens would be expected to produce 1440 progeny in total with 720 birds of each sex. Taking into account the mortality rate/loss of about 33% by the time birds are selected and mated (i.e. average loss of 2 chicks per hen), then the number of birds available for selection would be 240 x 4 = 960 (i.e. 480 chicks of each sex). The chosen percent mortality/loss was based on the obtained percent mortality/loss up to 12 weeks of age of about 30% under extensive management for this ecotype (Lwelamira 2007), and further assuming that once a chick reachies the age of 12 weeks stands a high chance to survive to maturity and breed when regular control of outbreak of major diseases under field conditions specifically Newcastle disease are in place.  Therefore, after accounting for mortalities/loss, selection of 40 best cocks and 240 best females in each generation would result into proportions selected of about 8.3% and 50% for males and female, respectively (i.e. average selection intensity of 1.4). Proportions selected (%) were transformed into selection intensity (i) using a Table by Falconer and Mackay, (1996).

 

In those breeding scenarios which involved selection under intensive management (On-station) in some stage, taking into account the reproductive performance, survival of the breeding stock under intensive management for this ecotype (Lwelamira 2007) and the recommended cock:hen ratio, proportion selection under this management system was assumed to be  3.7 and 22.2 % for males and females, respectively (i.e. average selection intensity of 1.8). This average selection intensity is within the range of that of around 1.5 to 2 mostly used in commercial chicken breeding (Ameli et al 1991; Su et al 1997).

 

Results and discussion 

Five breeding scenarios were considered in this study (Table 2).

Table 2.  Breeding scenarios for improving performance of Kuchi on-farm (extensive management)
Scenario	Description
1	Selection for improving body weight at 16 weeks of age done on-station and the improved stock (both males and females) is taken to the field (on-farm) after the end of selection.
2	Selection for improving body weight at 16 weeks of age done on-station and only improved males are taken to the field in each generation.
3	Selection is done both in males and females under on-farm conditions for improving both antibody response (humoral immune response) against NDV vaccine and body weight at 16 weeks of age.
4	Selection is done both in males and females under on-farm conditions for improving body weight at 16 weeks of age
5	Selection is done only in males under on-farm conditions for improving body weight at 16 weeks of age

Due to the presence of genotype by environment interactions observed for this ecotype for Bwt16 in a study by Lwelamira (2007) (i.e. rA= 0.75), some breeding scenarios (1 and 2) were designed to predict response on farm (extensive management) as a result of selection under intensive management. Since apart from genetic correlation between the same trait measured in the two environments, no information were available regarding corresponding phenotypic correlations, together with both genetic and phenotypic correlation between different traits (i.e. trait 1 and trait 2) measured two different environments due to data structure (Lwelamira 2007). Therefore, breeding scenarios which involve computation of correlated responses under extensive management following index selection for Bwt16 and Ab under intensive management was not considered.  Observed means, desired means and hence desired changes are indicated in Table 3.

Table 3.  Observed and desired mean and desired gain for Kuchi under extensive management system
Trait	Unit	Observed mean*	Desired mean	Desired change	Percentage change, %
Ab	HI (log2)	4.8	6	1.2	25
Bwt16	Gram	974	1300	326	34
*Source; Lwelamira (2007)  Ab= Antibody response (humoral immune response), Bwt16= body weight at 16 weeks of age

Results from Table 4 indicate that on-station single trait selection for body weight at 16 weeks of age predicted to yield an on-station response of around 87g per generation would be associated with a correlated response of about 68g per generation under extensive management (scenario 1).

Table 4.   Response to selection for body weight at 16 weeks of age on-farm for Kuchi (gain per generation in trait units)
Scenario	Bwt16, g	Generations
1	68.14	4.78
2	34.07	9.57
3	53.42	6.10
4	64.80	5.03
5	43.04	7.57

This is close to the response of 65g per generation obtained for single trait selection for body weight at 16 weeks of age carried out in both males and females under on-farm/extensive conditions (scenario 4), but higher that the response of 53g per generation obtained when apart from body weight, antibody response was also considered for selection under on-farm conditions (Scenario 3) (i.e. Index selection for Bwt16 and Ab under extensive management). Selection index (I) for this breeding scenario is shown in equation 8. Furthermore, in a breeding scenario where only improved cocks from the on-station (intensive management i.e. elite nucleus) are taken to the field as breeding males as suggested by Horst (1981), and Mukherjee (1990) (scenario 2), or selection for improving body weight at 16 weeks of age under extensive conditions is done only on males (scenario 5), it was predicted to result into appreciably lower genetic responses per generation (i.e. 34 and 43g, respectively) than those obtained in all other breeding scenarios investigated.    

  

    (Equation 8)

Considering the average body weight over both sexes of 974g at 16 week of age under extensive management obtained in a study by Lwelamira (2007) for this ecotype, breeding scenarios 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 would be expected to attain the desired average body weight of 1300g under extensive management (Table 3) after 4.78, 9.57, 6.10, 5.03, and 7.57 generations of selection, respectively (Table 4). By assuming mating, egg laying and incubation and hatching by the hen under extensive conditions takes approximately 2 months (i.e. 1 month for mating and egg laying, and 21 days for incubation and hatching), and age at sexual maturity under this management system is reached at around 8 months of age (Sonaiya 1992; Gunaratne et al 1992; Mwalusanya et al 2002), which would lead to a generation interval of around 10 months for breeding scenario 3, 4 and 5. Further assuming a generation interval of about 8 months (Lwelamira 2007; Su et al 1997) (i.e. 2 months for mating, egg collection, and hatching + 6 months for attaining sexual maturity under intensive system) for breeding scenario 1 and 2, it would require 3.2, 6.4, 5.1, 4.2, and 6.3 years of selection for breeding scenario 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively for achieving the desired gain.

 

Breeding scenario 1 and 2 are more convenient (cheap and easy to institute) compared to the other breeding scenarios, however, the problem of these breeding scenarios are reduced fitness under extensive management, and to a large extent in breeding scenario 1 (Horst 1981; Mukherjee 1990 1992; Demeke 2003). Doing selection under farm (extensive) conditions has the advantage of minimizing a problem of fitness under this management system i.e. loss of scavenging habit (scenarios 3, 4, and 5). However, the success of breeding scenarios under extensive conditions requires close supervision on record keeping under farm conditions which could be too involving and expensive. The problem could be more serious in breeding scenario 3 and 4 where both males and females are selected compared to breeding scenario 5 where only males are selected. Despite of being too involving and expensive, results from Table 4 also indicate breeding scenario 3 and 4 to have reasonably high genetic gain per generation. Therefore, in situation where resources are available for carrying out selection program under on-farm conditions, breeding scenario 3 could be recommended as it improves both body weight and humoral immune response to ND which is usually a serious problem under field conditions (Yongolo 1996; Alexander 2001; Ilango et al 2005; Otim 2005) at the expense of one more year of selection relative to breeding scenario 4. In a situation where resources are a problem, breeding scenario 5 or 2 could be advised depending on the magnitude of the problem. However, to achieve the desired gain in body weight, approximately one more year of selection would be required in both breeding scenarios relative to breeding scenario 3. If the problem of resources is not very severe, breeding scenario 5 could be a selection scheme of choice as it is expected to be associated with more fitness under farm conditions compared to breeding scenario 2.

 

Conclusion 

Approximately 5 to 10 generations of selection, which corresponds to around 3 to 6 years of selection would be required for improving Bwt16 either singly or together with Ab from their current population mean of 974g and 4.8 (HIlog₂) to the desired population mean of 1300g and 6(HIlog₂), respectively. The number of years of selection required to attain the desired gains for the studied ecotype indicates that it won’t take too long to reach the target (desired performance) if selection breeding programs would be initiated.  This suggests that selection breeding programs for improving performance of this ecotype for production under village conditions should be initiated. In addition, for these selection breeding programs to be successful, apart from gain per generation and number of years required to attain the desired mean, the choice of a breeding scenario should also consider expected fitness under village conditions and costs of breeding.

 

Acknowledgement 

The authors are very grateful for the financial support from Production and Health of Smallholder Livestock (PHSL) project funded by DANIDA which sponsored the senior author in his PhD. Programme.

 

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Received 26 March 2008; Accepted 18 April 2008; Published 6 November 2008

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